Continental Europe was mostly forgotten about for the next two decades after the Gallic Wars as power struggles wracked the Republic. Caesar's conquering spree was forced to an early end as Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) drew near. Caesar had twice crossed the Rhine river to fight Germanic tribes, but the engagements were tactically inconclusive. The Gallic Wars mostly saw fighting against the Gauls, but had also included fighting against various Germanic tribes. The Roman Republic had expanded rapidly in the first century BC, most notably under Julius Caesar, who had conquered most of western Europe and parts of the British Isles in the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). Main article: Early Imperial campaigns in Germania Geopolitical situation Map showing the defeat of Publius Quinctilius Varus at Kalkriese Invasions of Drusus I in 12–8 BC Invasions of Tiberius and Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus in c. Some of the descendants of the vassal kingdoms, like the Suebi (by suzerainty), that Augustus tried to create in Germania to expand the romanitas and the Empire would be the ones that invaded the Empire in the fourth and fifth centuries. The Roman Empire would launch no other major incursion into Germania until Marcus Aurelius (r. Retaliatory campaigns were commanded by Tiberius and Germanicus and would enjoy success, but the Rhine would eventually become the border between the Roman Empire and the rest of Germania. The provinces of Germania Superior and Germania Inferior, sometimes collectively referred to as Roman Germania, were subsequently established in northeast Roman Gaul, while territories beyond the Rhine remained independent of Roman control. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. Arminius had acquired Roman citizenship and had received a Roman military education, which enabled him to deceive the Roman commander methodically and anticipate the Roman army's tactical responses. The alliance was led by Arminius, a Germanic officer of Varus's auxilia. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, described as the Varian Disaster ( Latin: Clades Variana) by Roman historians, was a major battle between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire that took place at modern Kalkriese from September 8–11, 9 AD, when an alliance of Germanic peoples ambushed Roman legions and their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus. Roman campaigns in Germania during the 230s Marcomannic Wars (166–180) ( participating Roman units) Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16)
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